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第一篇：食品安全外文文獻(xiàn)

Food safety is affected by the decisions of producers, processors, distributors, food service operators, and consumers, as well as by government regulations.In developed countries, the demand for higher levels of food safety has led to the implementation of regulatory programs that address more types of safety-related attributes(such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy(BSE), microbial pathogens, environmental contaminants, and animal drug and pesticide residues)and impose stricter standards for those attributes.They also further prescribe how safety is to be assured and communicated.Liability systems are another form of regulation that affect who bears responsibility when food safety breaks down.These regulatory programs are intended to improve public health by controlling the quality of the domestic food supply and the increasing flow of imported food products from countries around the world.Common to the adoption of new regulations by developed countries is the application of risk analysis principles.Under these principles, and in line with the World Trade Organization’s(WTO’s)Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures(SPS Agreement), countries should base their regulatory actions on scientific risk assessment.In addition, a country should be able to clearly link its targeted level of protection, based on a scientifically assessed risk level, to its regulatory goals and, in turn, to its standards and inspection systems.Finally, the risk management options chosen should restrict trade as little as possible.Despite similarities in approach among developed countries, to date they have made only mixed progress toward aligning their regulatory requirements.Countries are struggling with the task of identifying key risk issues and choosing regulatory programs to control those risks.They emphasize different risks, apply different levels of precaution, and choose different regulatory approaches.The regulatory systems of countries are a mix of old laws and newer regulations that frequently do not apply consistent standards across products, risks, or countries of origin.Finally, countries may be tempted to use food safety regulations as a means of protecting domestic industries from foreign competition.These features of food safety regulation in developed countries have several implications for developing countries.First, they determine access to growing markets for food exports, particularly high-value fresh commodities such as those discussed in other briefs in this collection.When standards differ, this can create additional barriers for developingcountry exporters.Second, these features determine the issues that will be addressed in international forums, such as the Codex Alimentarius Commission.Third, they create expectations among developing-country consumers regarding acceptable levels of safety and set examples for emerging regulations in developing-country food systems.This brief reviews emerging regulatory approaches and the implications for developing countries.REGULATORY APPROACHES Countries regulate food safety through the use of process, product(performance), or information standards.Process standards specify how the product should be produced.For example, Good Manufacturing Practices specify in-plant design, sanitation, and operation standards.Product(performance)standards require that final products have specific characteristics.An example is the specification of a maximum microbial pathogen load for fresh meats and poultry.Finally, information standards specify the types of labeling or other communication that must accompany products.While these categories provide a neat breakdown, in practice most countries use a combination of approaches to regulate any particular food safety risk.For example, specifications for acceptable in-plant operations may be backed up with final product testing to monitor and verify the success of safety assurance programs.Labeling that instructs final consumers on proper food handling techniques may further back up these systems.MAJOR REGULATORY TRENDS IN DEVELOPED COUNTRIES ? Stronger public health and consumer welfare emphasis in decisions by regulatory agencies.The increasing use of the risk analysis framework for regulatory decision-making focuses attention on the effective control of public health risks as the ultimate goal of regulations, rather than intermediate steps such as assuring that accepted practices are used in production.This in turn leads to a focus on the food supply chain, on identifying where hazards are introduced into it, and on determining where those hazards can be controlled most cost effectively in the chain.This approach is referred to as “farm to table” or “farm to fork” analysis.When the supply chain extends across international borders, risk analysis may encompass farm or processing practices in developing countries.? Adoption of more stringent safety standards, with a broader scope of standards.Food safety standards are becoming more stringent in developed countries on two fronts.First, in many cases food safety attributes that were previously regulated are being held to more precise and stringent standards.For example, rather than assuring meat product safety simply through process standards, those products may be required to meet specific pathogen load standards for E.coli or Salmonella.Similarly, tolerances for aflatoxin may be lowered as more information and better testing become readily available.Second, the scope of standards is broadening, as new risks become known.For example, the European Union, the United States, and other countries have instituted strict feeding restrictions to avoid the spread of BSE in cattle.In addition, the European Union has recently established a regulatory program to control human exposure to dioxins through the food supply.These evolving standards create continuing challenges for producers and regulatory agencies in exporting countries.? Adoption of the HACCP approach to assuring safety.During the 1990s, developed countries made a strong shift toward requiring the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point(HACCP)approach to assuring food safety.Under HACCP, companies are responsible for analyzing how hazards such as food-borne pathogens may enter the product, establishing effective control points for those hazards, and monitoring and updating the system to assure high levels of food safety.These HACCP systems are usually predicated on the processing plant having an adequate system of sanitary operating procedures already in place.HACCP does not prescribe specific actions to be taken in a plant: the company chooses its methods for controlling hazards.HACCP systems make clear that the central responsibility for assuring safety belongs to a company;the regulator’s job is often shifted from one of direct inspection to providing oversight for the company’s operation of its HACCP plan.Since HACCP is primarily a process standard for company-level activity, inspection to assure compliance is challenging for imported products coming from plants in other countries.Some countries, such as those in the European Union, have mandated HACCP for all levels of the food supply chain, while others such as the United States have mandated it for specific sectors(meat slaughter and processing, for example).? Adoption of hybrid regulatory systems.Mandatory HACCP may be combined with performance standards for finished products.The performance standards(a minimum incidence of Salmonella in finished products, for example)provide a check on whether the HACCP plan is performing adequately.The increased use of performance standards has been facilitated by the development of more accurate and speedier testing procedures, particularly for pathogens.Eventually such tests may make it easier for exporters to demonstrate and verify a particular level of safety.食品安全受生產(chǎn)者、加工者、經(jīng)銷(xiāo)商、餐飲服務(wù)經(jīng)營(yíng)者決策的影響，也受到消費(fèi)者和政府法規(guī)的影響。在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家，對(duì)更高水平的食品安全的需求導(dǎo)致監(jiān)管的程序需要處理更多類型的與安全相關(guān)的屬性（如牛海綿狀腦病(BSE)、病原微生物、環(huán)境污染物和動(dòng)物的藥物和農(nóng)藥殘留）并且執(zhí)行施加更嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。他們還進(jìn)一步規(guī)定安全是如何被確保和傳達(dá)的。責(zé)任制度是當(dāng)食品安全發(fā)生問(wèn)題的時(shí)候誰(shuí)負(fù)有責(zé)任的另一種管理形式。這些監(jiān)管程序旨在通過(guò)控制國(guó)內(nèi)糧食供應(yīng)量和不斷增加來(lái)自世界各地的進(jìn)口食品來(lái)改善公共衛(wèi)生。風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析原理是由發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家共同通過(guò)的新條例的應(yīng)用。根據(jù)符合《世界貿(mào)易組織協(xié)定》和《 實(shí)施動(dòng)植物衛(wèi)生檢疫措施的協(xié)議》（SPS 協(xié)定）這些原則，國(guó)家應(yīng)該以監(jiān)管行為為基礎(chǔ)進(jìn)行科學(xué)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估。此外，一個(gè)國(guó)家應(yīng)當(dāng)有能力在其科學(xué)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的評(píng)估的基礎(chǔ)上，明確將其對(duì)產(chǎn)品的保護(hù)能力與其制定標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和檢查系統(tǒng)聯(lián)系起來(lái)，進(jìn)而達(dá)到其監(jiān)管目的。最后，選擇風(fēng)險(xiǎn)管理方案應(yīng)該盡可能減少貿(mào)易。到目前為止，在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家采取了相似的方法，在調(diào)整他們的監(jiān)管要求方面取得了一定的進(jìn)展。各個(gè)國(guó)家都在努力確定風(fēng)險(xiǎn)問(wèn)題的關(guān)鍵，并且選擇相應(yīng)的監(jiān)管程序來(lái)控制這些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。他們強(qiáng)調(diào)不同的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，需要運(yùn)用不同等級(jí)的預(yù)防措施，也需要選擇不同的監(jiān)管方法。國(guó)家的監(jiān)管制度混合了舊的法律和新的法規(guī)，通常不適用于貫穿產(chǎn)品、風(fēng)險(xiǎn)或原籍國(guó)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。最后，國(guó)家可能會(huì)使用食品安全法規(guī)作為保護(hù)國(guó)內(nèi)工業(yè)免受外國(guó)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的一種手段。發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家食品安全監(jiān)管的這些特點(diǎn)對(duì)發(fā)展中國(guó)家的食品安全監(jiān)管有多方面的啟示。首先，他們決定增長(zhǎng)食品出口市場(chǎng)，特別是高價(jià)值新鮮的商品，在此集合中與其他概要一起討論。當(dāng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不同時(shí)，就可以為發(fā)展中國(guó)家出口制造更多的障礙。其次，這些特征決定了在食品法典委員會(huì)等國(guó)際論壇將討論的問(wèn)題。第三，他們?cè)诎l(fā)展中國(guó)家糧食系統(tǒng)中創(chuàng)建發(fā)展中國(guó)家消費(fèi)者關(guān)于可接受水平的安全和新興規(guī)章設(shè)定的舉例寄予了厚望。這個(gè)概要回顧了新興的監(jiān)管方式及對(duì)發(fā)展中國(guó)家的影響。監(jiān)管辦法：各國(guó)通過(guò)使用流程、產(chǎn)品（性能）或信息標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)范食品安全。工藝標(biāo)準(zhǔn)規(guī)定如何生產(chǎn)產(chǎn)品。例如，良好的生產(chǎn)規(guī)范中規(guī)定了工廠的設(shè)計(jì)，衛(wèi)生和操作標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。產(chǎn)品（性能）標(biāo)準(zhǔn)要求最終產(chǎn)品要有特定的特性。一個(gè)例子就是一個(gè)最大的微生物病原體負(fù)載的新鮮肉類和家禽的規(guī)范。最后，信息標(biāo)準(zhǔn)指定的標(biāo)簽，必須伴隨著產(chǎn)品類型的其他交流。雖然這些類別為靈活的故障作好了準(zhǔn)備，但是在實(shí)踐中大多數(shù)的國(guó)家都會(huì)使用各種方法的組合來(lái)控制特定食品安全的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。例如，工廠運(yùn)營(yíng)中的規(guī)范可能得到最終產(chǎn)品的測(cè)試，一次來(lái)監(jiān)測(cè)和核查安全保證項(xiàng)目的成功。標(biāo)簽的指示最終會(huì)使消費(fèi)者對(duì)正確的食物處理技術(shù)系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行進(jìn)一步的支持。主要所監(jiān)管的趨勢(shì)都在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家，強(qiáng)有力的公眾健康和消費(fèi)者福利重點(diǎn)，是由監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)所決定的。監(jiān)管監(jiān)管決策的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析框架越來(lái)越多地使用，增加關(guān)注的公共衛(wèi)生風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的有效控制才是制度的終極目標(biāo)，而不是像用于被確保用于生產(chǎn)地做法這種中間步驟。這反過(guò)來(lái)導(dǎo)致焦點(diǎn)在食品供應(yīng)鏈中，它有被確定的危害，并確定在哪里可以最控制這些危險(xiǎn)成本并且有效地在供應(yīng)鏈中。這種方法稱為“農(nóng)場(chǎng)到餐桌”或“農(nóng)場(chǎng)到餐桌”分析。當(dāng)供應(yīng)鏈延伸跨越國(guó)屆的時(shí)候，包括農(nóng)場(chǎng)或處理做法的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)分析可能會(huì)在發(fā)展中國(guó)家。? 采用更嚴(yán)格的安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，具有更廣泛的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)范圍。發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的食品安全標(biāo)準(zhǔn)日趨變得更加嚴(yán)格。首先，在許多情況下以前是如何規(guī)定食品安全的屬性被提升至到更精確和更嚴(yán)格的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。舉個(gè)例子，不是確保肉類產(chǎn)品安全只是通過(guò)程序標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，而是這些產(chǎn)品可能需要滿足特定病原體荷載標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為大腸桿菌或沙門(mén)氏菌。同樣，隨著更多的信息和更好的檢測(cè)變得隨時(shí)可用，就一降低堆黃曲霉毒素的公差。其次，因?yàn)樾碌娘L(fēng)險(xiǎn)變得已知，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的范圍正在擴(kuò)大。例如，歐洲聯(lián)盟、美國(guó)和其他國(guó)家制定了嚴(yán)格的飼養(yǎng)限制，以避免瘋牛病傳播。此外，歐洲聯(lián)盟最近成立一個(gè)監(jiān)管的程序來(lái)控制人類通過(guò)食品供應(yīng)所接觸的二惡英（化學(xué)污染物）。這些不斷發(fā)展的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)為生產(chǎn)國(guó)和出口國(guó)的管理機(jī)構(gòu)創(chuàng)造持續(xù)的挑戰(zhàn)。? 通過(guò) HACCP 方法保證安全。在上世紀(jì)90年代，發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家作出強(qiáng)烈轉(zhuǎn)向要求保證食品安全的危害分析關(guān)鍵控制點(diǎn)(HACCP)方法。按照 HACCP，公司負(fù)責(zé)分析如何把食源性致病菌危害盡可能輸入產(chǎn)品，有效的控制要點(diǎn)和監(jiān)測(cè)和更新系統(tǒng)，以保證高水平的食品安全。這些 HACCP 系統(tǒng)通常取決于加工廠有適當(dāng)?shù)牡轿坏男l(wèi)生操作程序制度。HACCP并沒(méi)有規(guī)定所采取的設(shè)備具體的行動(dòng)，公司選擇其控制危害的方法。HACCP 系統(tǒng)明確保證安全中心責(zé)任屬于公司；從直接檢驗(yàn)之上，監(jiān)管機(jī)構(gòu)的工作經(jīng)常被轉(zhuǎn)移到監(jiān)督為公司的操作提供其 HACCP 計(jì)劃。由于 HACCP是以公司活動(dòng)級(jí)別的過(guò)程主要標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，檢查以確保來(lái)自工廠的其他國(guó)家的進(jìn)口產(chǎn)品遵從法規(guī)，是具有挑戰(zhàn)性的。一些國(guó)家，例如在歐洲聯(lián)盟，有授權(quán) HACCP 為各級(jí)食品供應(yīng)鏈，而其他如美國(guó)是授權(quán)具體門(mén)（例如，肉類屠宰和加工）。? 通過(guò)混合監(jiān)管系統(tǒng)。強(qiáng)制性HACCP可能結(jié)合成品性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)（例如，在成品沙門(mén)氏菌的發(fā)生率最低）的提供對(duì) HACCP 計(jì)劃是否充分執(zhí)行進(jìn)行了檢查。通過(guò)更準(zhǔn)確和更快的測(cè)試程序，特別是對(duì)病原菌的發(fā)展促進(jìn)了增加的使用性能標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。最終這種測(cè)試可能方便出口商證明和核實(shí)特定級(jí)別的安全。